To understand the title above one must refer to history as far back as
three thousand years ago, when our distant ancestors, the Samnites[1],
formed into groups called “gens[2]” and occupied our land. Sabone[3] relates
that the Sabines[4], since they were at war with the Umbri[5], made a solemn
promise to the Numina[6] that, if they were helped to win against their
enemy, they would sacrifice everything that was born during the Spring. Thus
the “ver sacrum[7]” was born – that is the holy springtime pledge that was
made every year in Spring, sacrificing every newborn, whether human or
animal, to the Numina.
Later, as the ancient ferocity for sacrificing became attenuated, young
human lives were spared from death, but instead, those born in the Spring
were dedicated to a God, and when they reached the age of 20, they had to
emigrate in search of new lands, guided by a bull that symbolized the
strength of their Numen. Thus new colonies and new races were formed.
According to legend, in one of these emigrations, the wild bull that guided
these 20-year olds, stopped and fell asleep in the region where the Opici or
Osci or Opsci[8] lived. These were rough, wild men, clad in animal skins,
without homes and without laws; they were called this because the Sabine
name “Opscus” meant “worker of the earth”, which was connected to the name
of the God Ops[9], who personified the earth. The Opici, in origin and by
language were Greeks; they dwelt in Campania[10] alongside the Pelasgi[11]
and had emigrated in ancient times from the coasts of Greece and
Dalmatia[12]. These people dedicated themselves to working in the fields, so
much so that they were soon easily defeated by the Sabines. The Sabines
established themselves at first around Matese[13], mixing with the Osci and
the Pelasgi and later on, spreading into neighbouring zones, the local
inhabitants called them “Saberti”– which means “small Sabines”. Later they
were called “Samnites” or “Sannites” by the Romans and “Sannitai” by the
Greeks.
Thus it is true to say that ancient Samnium was made up directly by a Sabine
element and indirectly by an Oscan Pelasgic element.
The “Sabelli[14]” who grew over the years both in numbers and in power,
divided into many tribes as they expanded towards Abruzzo. This territory,
however, was not actually called Abruzzo, it was never unified politically
or ethnographically for many years yet to come and the peoples were called
Frentani[15], Marruccini[16], Peligni[17], Vestini[18], Marsi[19],
Picenti[20], Palmensi[21], Pretuziani (Teramani)[22], Adriani[23], Equi[24]
and Samnites[see 1]. It seems that Frentania[25] probably had its own
physiognomy in the 5th Century B.C.; what is clear is that, from the times
of Pliny[26] onwards, Frentania was quite distinct from Samnium[27] yet the
Frentanians maintained the Oscan language that was spoken by the Samnites.
It turns out in fact that, although the Frentani were allies of Samnium, in
the 4th Century BC, they had their own military and civil ordinances and
their territory extended along the Adriatic from the River Foro[28] to the
River Fortore[29] and it had borders with the Samnites, the Marruccini and
the Peligni. The Frentana region occupied most of the present-day province
of Chieti[30] and reached as far as Molise[31], through the entire
Larino[32] territory and on the coast it possessed the towns of Ortona[33],
Istonio[34] and Buca[35] in the territory that is the present-day Punta
Penne[36] and
Termoli[37], which is called “Interamnia”[38]. Inland its largest centres
were Anxanum (Lanciano)[39], Pallanum (Pallano)[40] and Iuvanum[41]; these
are listed by Pliny in his Naturalis Historia[42] book III, chapter 12,
where he lists in alphabetical order the Anxani[43], the Carentini[see 44]
and the Lanuenses who are the Iuvanenses (Lanuenses is evidently an error
made by the people copying the text.)[see extract in 42] The proof that the
territory of Juvanum and Torricella really belonged to the Frentani comes
from Pliny himself, who in describing the Carentines[44], assigns them to
the Frentani, whilst he indicates as Caracenes[45] those belonging to
Samnium and typically (according to Balzano’s[46] opinion) those between
Civitella Alfedena[47] and Villa S. Maria[48], along both shores of the
River Sangro[49].
In Frentania, the Carentine people (or Sarentines or Saracines)[see 44] are
divided into “supernati” and “infernati” (i.e. born above or born below) so
those on the left bank of the Sangro, towards the Majella[50], native to the
high plains near Torricella Peligna are “supernati”, whilst the “infernati”
include those on the right bank, from Bomba[51] downwards, (towards the
sea).
Amongst the mountains of Frentania, other than Mount Pallano[52], there are
the Pizi (Pizzi) or Piconi[53], which were called by these names because of
their many sharply pointed peaks (see Pizzoferrato[54]). The Frentanian part
lies between Palena[55], Montenerodomo[56] and Torricella[***], There is a
legend that, when the Romans invaded Southern Samnium, the nearby people hid
gold and silver in these mountains, but these treasures have never been
found.
The Piconi Mountains have given their name to so many dear people, including
my brotherly friend, the lawyer Nicola[57], fierce warrior of all just
causes.
Right up to the period immediately following the end of the Samnite[58] and
Italic Wars[59], the Romans under Silla[60] turned the Italic peoples into
their colonials: Frentani, Peligni, Marsi, Marruccini, etc. Then gradually
the more important towns were transformed into Roman Townships with
identical administrative structures: (1) a “Comizio[61]” which functioned as
a legislative assembly, (2) a “Senate[62]”, which acted as the Town Council,
(3) either two or four executive Magistrates called a duumvirate[63] or a
quattuorvirate[64], who also presided over the Senate and the buildings
which looked after Public Offices and especially the temples and (4)
Quaestors[65] who were examining judges and also had jurisdiction over
certain financial matters.
Juvanum lay between the Roman Municipii (Town Halls) as is shown on one
tombstone, that tells of Poppedio, a patron of the Municipio, and on another
which records that Fabio Massimo, rector of the Samnite Province in 352,
restored the walls of Juvanum. Pliny writes of the inhabitants of this
Commune as Carentine Frentanians, whilst Mommsen[66] believes that this was
very widespread and included the present-day villages including
Montenerodomo[see 56], Fallascoso[67], Pennadomo[68], Torricella[see ***],
Taranta[69], Palena[see 55] , Gessopalena[70] and Civitella[71].
Thus Torricella has always been Frentanian, right back to ancient times and
in the medieval age it is declared in the Catalogue of Barons[72] (1150-1168
AD) as Turricellam number 1024.
Until the Royal Decree of 22nd January 1863 number 1140, it was called
Torricella and the name Peligna was not added until more recently. Evidently
somebody who was not well-informed with respect to history, thought of
categorizing Torricella with the ancient ethnicity of the Peligni, thinking
(erroneously) that the Peligni had inhabited the western part of the
Majella[see 50]:- Campo di Giove[73] and Pacentro[74]. This person must have
thought that the Peligni had also extended further towards Lama[75], and had
not taken into account the facts firstly that between Lama and Torricella
there is a vast valley which divides them and secondly that Torricella is on
the slopes of the River Sangro and not of the River Pescara[76] …..
Evidently, the person proposing the addition of Peligna to Torricella, was
not familiar either with its history or its geography.
As an extenuating circumstance one can only think that he might have mixed
up the Peligni with the Frentani, because Pelina or Peligna[77] was the
indigenous municipal Goddess of both the Peligni and the Frentani,
identified by some as Cibele[78], by others as Vesta[79], Diana[80] or
Pallade[81]. A votive tombstone found at Lanciano was made by M. Albo
Nicerati; on it was written “Pelinae beneficae M. Albius Niceratus ex voto
DD.” According to Priori[82] the temple must have been at Lanciano where
later, in the old city, the Church of San Lorenzo was built.
I want to hope that Torricellans, affectionately bound to Torricella
Peligna, will not consider me to be a desecrator of their memories of
Torricella as Peligna. In the final analysis, the etymology of the name
Frentania is that it comes from “fretum” which in the Oscan language means
“the sea” and thus the Frentani were dwellers of the sea shore; on the other
hand, however, they could not be inhabitants of the mountain as are the
friends of Torricella.
TRANSLATOR’S NOTES :
Territories occupied by Samnites and neighbouring peoples in IVth Century BC
With all of these names, of all of these peoples, and the uncertainties of
historical tradition, mostly coming from unsure information and legends, the
only certainty is that, when contacts with Rome began, the peoples living in
Abruzzo, represented one of the two branches of the Italic people. These two
branches were the Latins and the Umbrians; from the latter came the Marsi,
Samnites or Osci, and from these came all the nations that in historic times
occupied the various territories in Central Italy.
Traditionally the passage from pastoral life to agriculture is credited to
king Italus (or Vitalo or Vitulo), but this is yet another version of the
Samnitic fable, that says that their aratore (ploughman) was the head of the
colonies. In the same way the most ancient Latin names call the Siculi or
Sicani field workers (or Opsci).
There is a good article about the tribes :
Timelines:
Abruzzo and Molise
[1] Samnites – were the ancient tribe(s) of people
of the land/country/region called Samnium, in the centre-south of the
Italian peninsula. The land occupied by the
Samnites, was named Safinium by its inhabitants who called themselves
Safineis. After assimilation, the Romans in Latin called the country Samnium
and the people Samnites. The Greeks instead called the territory Saunitis
and the people Saunitai.
According to ancient tradition, atavistic people had migrated into the land
once occupied by the Opici or Osci (see [8] below) and had
assimilated their customs and the Oscan language from them. It is believed
that they came to Samnium from the nearby land of the Sabinis from whom they
were descended. This suggestion led the historians Strabone, Plutarc and
Dionysious of Alicarnassus to conclude that the Samnites derived their Greek
origin from the Spartans.
The Osco-Umbrian people, including the Samnites as well as the Sabines,
originated during the Iron Age from a fusion of local peoples with indo-european
infiltrations. By 600 B.C. they became the well defined Osco-Umbrian tribes
and in 500 BC, if not before, the people, now historically known as the
Samnites, were clearly identified as having indisputable control of this
Samnium region.
[2] Gens, gentis (Latin) – clan, family, stock, race; tribe, people,
nation; descendant; (plural) foreign peoples.
[3] Sabone – I believe this to be a typing error … and that the
author is referring to Strabo also known as Strabone – a Greek/Roman
historian, geographer and philosopher, famous for his 17-book work,
Geography, containing the descriptions of peoples and places all over
the world as known to him. (He lived 64 BC – 23 AD).
Strabo wrote some two thousand years ago in the early days of the Roman
Empire. In his Geography, he provides us with a fascinating verbal
description of the 'Inhabited World', as envisaged at that time. Writing in
Greek, covering a world dominated by Rome, Strabo’s work is of interest to
historians of Rome and its regions, in particular for his description of the
geo-political landscape under the first two Roman emperors, Augustus and
Tiberius. Strabo’s Geography has survived in various copies, but of his
History (referred to by him in his Geography and mentioned in
other ancient writings) only a few fragments remain (mainly in papyri
excavated at Herculaneum and “rediscovered” only recently).
[4] Sabines - were one of the most ancient peoples of Italy, so
ancient that Strabo considered them to be native; and from them many other
Italic populations were derived. The Sabines also were an Umbrian tribe;
according to some sources they crossed to Italy from the vicinity of the
Sabi River in Peonia, Illiria, though others would have liked to consider
them as originating from Sparta. The Sabines were the ancestors of the
Sabelli (see [14] below).
[5] Umbri – the earliest documented tribes who settled in Umbria 1000
BC were noted to be Osco-Umbrians. They dominated a vast area of Central
Italy and founded the first nuclei of important towns in Umbria, such as
Otricoli, Amelia, Terni, Narni, Todi, Marsciano, Spoleto,
Nocera, Foligno, Assisi, Bettona, Gualdo Tadino, Gubbio, Città di Castello.
[6] Numen, (pl) numina (Latin) – presiding deity or spirit; divinity,
god that protects a people, a city or a family.
[7] Ver sacrum (Latin) – offerings of firstlings in the Spring.
[8] Opici or Osci or Opsci – early italic tribes; the limits where
the Osci language was spoken were Campania, Samnium, Irpinia, Frentania and
Northern Apulia. This language, which is strictly connected and similar to
Latin, (and not mysterious like the language of the Etruscans), was the
language that continued to be spoken in Central Italy even after the Roman
conquest (it is found in the medal inscriptions coined by the Samnites in
our Abruzzo region during the social war). Oscan, the language of the Osci,
is one of the ancient progenitors of the Italian language, supposedly
closely related to Umbrian, Latin and Faliscan. It is believed Oscan was
spoken in Samnium and in Campania, as well as in Lucania and in Abruzzo.
Something of it is known by inscriptions starting from 400 BC. Their
language and culture identifies the Osci as one of the most ancient peoples
of central Italy.
[9] Ops – in Roman times she was Goddess of plenty, of wealth and of
the harvest. Ops was the Magna Mater = the Great Mother. Originally Ops was
the Greek Goddess Rhea, (Rhea was the Greek Goddess of the fertile earth,
abundance, sowing, harvest and wealth) and later she was adopted by the
Romans and given her Roman name; she was a wife of Saturn (Cronus). Like in
the Greek myths, she was the mother of Roman Olympians. One of her festivals
was on August 10; another festival was the Opalia, which was observed on
December 9. The Opeconsiva, on August 25 was her primary festival, but was
participated in only by her priests and the Vestal Virgins. Worship of the
Mother Goddess gradually became assimilated and transformed into worship of
Mary, the Madonna “the giver of life” in Christianity.
[10] Campania - is a region of Southern Italy, bordering on Lazio to
the north-west, Molise to the north-east, Puglia to the south-east,
Basilicata to the south, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. The name
comes directly from Latin, as the Romans called it Campania felix (lucky
countryland). The regional capital is Naples (Napoli). The region is divided
into five provinces: Avellino, Benevento, Caserta, Napoli and Salerno.
[11] Pelasgi - From a tribal name, both Classical historians and
archeologists have come to use the name "Pelasgian" to describe the
inhabitants in the lands around the Aegean Sea and their descendants before
the arrival of the waves of Greek-speaking invaders during the 2nd
millennium BC. The results of archaeological excavations at Çatalhöyük, a
very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement in southern Anatolia,
dating from around 7500 by James Mellaart (1955) and F. Schachermeyr (1979)
led them to conclude that the Pelasgians had migrated from Asia Minor to the
Aegean basin in the 4th millennium BC. Further, scholars have attributed a
number of non-Indo-European linguistic and cultural features to the
Pelasgians.
[12] Dalmatia – ancient region in what is now SW Croatia. Consists of
mountains and a narrow coastal plain along the Adriatic, with many offshore
islands. It once formed part of the Roman province of Illyricum.
[13] Matese – a massif region of the central-southern Apennines; its
name may derive from the medieval term Mathesium, or from the Roman goddess
of dawn, Matuta; perhaps associated with the fact that from the mountain
tops of the Matese, one can see both the dawn, with the rising sun over
Molise, and at the same time the still darkness of night over Campania.
[14] Sabelli - people of ancient Italy who spoke Oscan. Ancestors of
Samnites. They were a loose group and seemed to have had little or no
political unity. Oscan-speaking tribes expanded over central Italy, and by
the 5th century B.C. they seem to have taken ancient Campania and Lucania.
The Samnites and Sabines were probably Sabelli.
[15] Frentani - one of the ancient Samnite tribes which formed an
independent community on the east coast of Italy. They entered the Roman
alliance after their capital, Frentrum, was taken by the Romans in 305 or
304 B.C. (Livy ix. 16. 45). This town, which had issued coins of its own
with an Oscan legend, either changed its name or perished some time after
the middle of the 3rd century B.C.
[16] Marruccini - ancient tribe that occupied a small area around
Teate (modern Chieti, Abruzzo) on the east coast of Italy. The Marruccini,
though Samnite kinsmen, were probably not members of the Samnite league;
they came into conflict with the Romans during the Second Samnite War, at
the end of which they entered the Roman alliance (304 BC).
[17] Peligni – Ancient people of pre-roman Italy, belonged to the
Sabelli; settled in the Valley of the River Aterno in Abruzzo. Strabo said
they inhabited the territories of Sulmona, Pentima, and Popolo.
In 91 B.C. (659 years after Rome was founded) when almost all other wars
were at an end, this region buzzed with discord. The Peligni people, who
lived here in subjection to the Romans, joined other Italic peoples (Marsi &
Piceni) to demand equality with Roman citizens. The united groups pronounced
themselves a nation—named Italia—and declared war on Rome. It was a very
destructive war on both sides and in the end the Romans defeated the
alliance, but they did grant the Italics Roman citizenship.
[18] Vestini - an ancient Sabine tribe, originating from Illyria that
fused with the native population The Vestini occupied the eastern and
northern bank of the Aterno in central Italy (Abruzzo), entered into the
Roman alliance, retaining their own independence, in 304 B.C., and issued
coins of their own in the following century. They fought in the social and
civil wars against Rome and later became Romanised.
The origin of the Vestines is unknown; in his description Strabo, after
listing them along with the Marsi, Paeligni, Marrucini and Frentani, unites
all of them under a common ancestral race: the Samnites. According to Strabo
their common origin was proved by the frequent communications, the similar
customs, forms of government and religion, and the main current of thought
nowadays follows him in considering that the Vestini were derived from the
Umbrian-Samnites of Central Italy.
It is possible that the name derives from the cult of Vesta, the goddess of
the family, whose temple before Rome was originally in Alba, and whose cult
the Romans and the Sabellians derived probably from the East. Apart from
medals, a great many inscriptions bear the name of Vesta, and one can still
be seen just outside the city door of Penne. But other writers say that the
name of the Vestini derives from their position between the Piomba and the
Aterno, that is from the Celtic words ves (meaning river) and tin (meaning
country); so that Vestini would mean “inhabitants of the country of the
waters”, and they would have originated from the Illyric-Celtic populations
who were the earliest inhabitants of the Adriatic coast, and who, in later
periods, moved into the interior.
[19] Marsi - were an ancient people of Abruzzo, Italy, whose chief
centre was Marruvium, on the eastern shore of Lake Fucinus*. The Marsi were
a hardy mountain people, famed for their simple habits and indomitable
courage. It was said that the Romans had never triumphed over them or
without them (Appian). They were also renowned for their magicians, who had
strange remedies for various diseases.
* Lake Fucinus - Italian Conca Del Fucino, formerly Lago Fucino, or Lago Di
Celano, Latin Lacus Fucinus, former lake bed in L'Aquila province, Abruzzi
region, central Italy, just east of Avezzano. The lake was once 37 miles (59
km) in circumference and about 100 ft (30 m) deep, although its level was
subject to great variations because of the lack of an outlet. As early as AD
52 the emperor Claudius had a tunnel constructed, 3½ miles (5½ km) long, as
an outlet to the Liri (Liris) River. The tunnel is still there to this day.
[20] The Picenti (or Piceni) were a tribe known to have inhabited
central Italy and archaeology has exposed a strong Illyrian presence among
them. In Roman times they lived in the Piceno region. The Piceni
civilization developed into an important inhabited nucleus in the low
Marche, where they had a sacred area that was of even greater importance
then for religious life than that of today, yet under many aspects
they remain for us a mysterious population. They had an important role in
the “Amber Road” – trading with peoples from the Baltic regions and along
the Adriatic routes and in all the maritime traffic that ensued.
[21] Palmensi - The Palmensi, whose territory was named after a kind
of vine called palme producing an exquisite wine, occupied (according to
Plinius’ topography) the land south of the Tronto river bordering the
Adriatic coast as far as the Elvino river, today called Vibrata. Therefore,
the Palmensi were bordered by the Adriatic sea in the east, in the west by
the Apennines, in the north by the Tronto river which divided them from the
Piceni. On the left bank of the river Truentus, nowadays Tronto, the
Palmensi had a town which Strabone describes under the name of Civitas
Truentina and Plinius with the name of the river itself, Truentum.
The Helvinus river, which is surely present-day Vibrata or Ubrata, flowing
from Garrufo as far as the sea, divided the territory of the Palmensi from
the territory of the Praetutii, which was larger, bordering in the north the
right bank of the Elvino and the Agrum Palmense and Agrum Ascolanum, and in
the south the Vomano river; having its natural limits in the Adriatic in the
east, and in the west the main Apennine range with the mountains of Pizzo di
Sevo, Pizzo di Moscio, Montagna di Roseto and Valle Chiarina, where the
Sabinum territory began. Nowadays all these territories correspond to the
districts of Giulianova, Notaresco, Teramo, Montorio, Campli and Civitella
del Tronto.
[22] Pretuziani (Teramani) - The origin of this name, Praetutious, is
uncertain, the territory may have derived its name from the main town which
in antiquity was called Petrut.
Beyond the Salino river (Salinum flumen), the Praetutii had a town called
Beregra and their hinterland that was occupied by a Roman colony under
Augustus; we don’t know where it was situated however, and although some
scholars think it was Garrufo, near Nereto, others place it in the Fano
plain, while still others identify it with either Bisegna or Civitella del
Tronto.
Another Praetutii town was Castrum Novum, 12 miles from Truentum, along the
Salaria, which was not – as the name castrum suggests – merely a citadel,
but a real town; however nothing is known about its ancient name or its
history. In the Middle Ages it was called Castrum divi Flaviani and in the
XV century the inhabitants were moved three miles to the hinterland, where
Giulianova is now.
The most important Praetutii city was Interamnia (present-day Teramo), their
capital at the junction of the Albula (Vezzola) and the Batinus river
(Tordino).
The Pretuzi were a Sabine people that the Roman Emperor Augustus united with
the Picenes or Marchigiani - and he explicitly mentioned the excellent wines
of the Conero. Monte Conero is a mountain of unusual formation, overlooking
the city of Ancona; it appears to have derived its name from the Greek word
for the arbutus (strawberry tree) or marine cherry which grows there,
spontaneously, in considerable abundance on the slopes of this promontory of
the Marches. There are various hypotheses about the geological formation of
the hill, which rises to an altitude of 572 meters above sea level. Some
insist that it is all that remains of the ancient Adria, a sort of Atlantis,
that once extended as far eastward as Dalmatia and that sank into the
Adriatic. Others regard it as a localized protuberance resulting from
tectonic forces. What is certain is that vines have grown on the slopes of
this hill since ancient times.
The first mention of the wines of Ancona is found in the Historia Naturalis
of Pliny the Elder, who, in listing the numerous wines produced in his day
in Italy, mentioned those of Ancona as among the best known of the products
of the Adriatic shore. That citation was echoed by his nephew Pliny the
Younger in his Letters, which represent a fundamental literary source
for an understanding of life in imperial Rome.
[23] Adriani - As far as the Adriani are concerned, their region was
narrower. The Vomano river (Vomanus fluvium) separated it in the north from
the Praetuitii and the Matrino (or Piomba), the “terrible river”, divided it
from the Vestini, with the Apennine range and the Gran Sasso in the south
and the west; so that this territory only covered the districts of Atri and
Bisenti. It is doubtful whether these were also the limits of the ancient
Hatriana region before the Roman occupation; maybe the opposite is true
since Adria, the only city described in this region by ancient geographers,
was larger in antiquity, for population and importance, than Interamnia,
which was 15 miles away. The Atriani had a trade point which later on became
a castle and was called Matrinum or Macrinum Oppidum; some scholars place it
at the mouth of the Piomba, others on the other bank of the Vomano river,
where nowadays Scerne is situated.
The Adriani territory also comprised Mons Cunarus which, according to
Cluverius, was Monte Corno, the highest peak in the Gran Sasso.
In order to briefly summarize the histories of the Adriani, Praetutii and
Palmensi, it should be said that, apart from the occupation of the Umbri,
Siculi and Liburni and possibly other populations together called Pelasgi,
and the wars between all these peoples and other more ancient populations,
nothing is known prior to the Roman occupation. The destiny of the Praetutii
seems to have been decided in 461, when Curius Dentatus defeated the Sabines
for the second time, and the Samnites accepted his conditions: but the
occupation of Castrum and Adria by Roman colonizers shows that maybe
possibly they had been occupied earlier than that. The Praetutii were allies
to the Romans against Hannibal, who perhaps for this reason plundered the
Agrum Praeututianum and Adrianum. In order to obtain revenge, the Praetutii
fought courageously along with the Frentani and the Marrucini against the
Carthaginians thus contributing to the victory of the Roman general Nero at
the Metaurum River.
In later times the devastations of the Social War also touched Praetutium
and, when the Italic allies obtained Roman citizenship, the Praetutii were
included with the Piceni in order to bring extra votes to Rome. Then a
number of noble families left Rome and went to live in Praetutium, which had
already become a part of the Roman Republic; they shared the first Roman
successes and adopted the Roman language and customs. The names of many
modern villages in this territory are derived from those families.
[24] Equi – Aequi – are another group of early people in Abruzzo; it
is difficult to trace their separate history, to identify the area they
inhabited, or the sites of their settlements; they were conquered by the
Romans before the 3rd Century BC.
[25] Frentania – the principal town of these people in ancient times
was known as Anxanum (Auxanum); legend ascribes its foundation to one of the
companions of Aeneas. The ancient city lies further to the east than its
modern-day counterpart, Lanciano, one of the most important cities of the
Abruzzo region. The area where the Frentani lived was already famous many
centuries ago for its enchanting gardens and olive groves that are spread
along the coast. Citrus flavoured oils are the symbol of the ancient
traditions of Frentania.
[26] Pliny - Gaius Plinius Secundus, (23-79 AD) better known as Pliny
the Elder, was an ancient author and scientist of some importance who wrote
Naturalis Historia. He was a Roman officer and encyclopaedist. He was
the son of a Roman eques* by the daughter of the senator Gaius Caecilius of
Novum Comum. He was born at Como.
*eques, plural equites, (Latin) - An Equestrian was a member of one of the
two upper social classes in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. This
class is often translated as Knight or Chevalier. However, this translation
is not literal, for whilst medieval knights relied on their martial skills
and the physical power of their horse and armour to support their position,
the connection of Roman equestrians to horses, as early as during the early
days of the Republic, was more symbolic. The social position of knights and
equestrians, however, was extremely similar, equestrians being the nearest
Roman equivalent to the Medieval nobility; the tax farming system closely
approached feudalism, without actually being identical, due to inherent
differences in their social structures.
[27] Samnium - (Oscan Safinim) was the region of the southern
Apennines in Italy that was home to the Samnites, a group of Osco-Umbrian
tribes; roughly it encompassed the Sangro Valley region of the Abruzzo in
Italy; which the Samnites controlled from about 600 BC to about 290 BC.
Samnium was delimited by Latium in the north, Lucania (modern-day
Basilicata) in the south, Campania in the west and Puglia in the south-east.
The principal city of the region was Malventum, which was later renamed
Beneventum* by the Romans. For most of their history the Samnites were
landlocked, but during a brief period they controlled parts of both coasts
of the Italian peninsula. The Samnites were composed of at least four
tribes: the Pentri, the Caraceni, the Caudini and the Hirpini, and later may
also have been joined by the Frentani.
The earliest written record of the Samnite people is a treaty with the
Romans from 354 BC, which set their border at the Liris River. Shortly
thereafter the Samnite Wars broke out; they won an important battle with the
Roman army in 321 BC, and their empire reached its peak in 316 BC after
further gains from the Romans. In 290 BC the Romans finally broke the
Samnites' power. In 82 BC the Roman dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla
slaughtered many of them and forced the rest to disperse.
The Samnite culture is one of several ethnic groups in the Roman empire; it
originated from the Samnium region, While Samnium was considered a cultural
backwater by the Romans, investigations by the Soprintendenza per i Beni
Archeologici dell'Abruzzo and the Sangro Valley Project on Monte Pallano
have identified a society that was in fact quite influential to the
development of greater Italy. In addition, recent investigations at Pompeii
have identified an influx of Samnite culture at the time of the Roman
occupation of the 2nd century BC.
* Benevento - a town in Campania, is capital of the province of Benevento,
32 miles Northeast of Naples. It is situated on a hill 400 ft. above
sea-level at the confluence of the Calore and Sabbato Rivers. Benevento
occupies the site of the ancient Beneventum, originally Maleventum or
Maluentum (meaning "the site of bad wind" - some authors also proposed it
could mean "a place of crazy people", as in ancient times it was supposed
that mad people had a sort of wind storm inside their head). It is supposed
to have been founded in the imperial period.
[28] River Foro – arises in the Maiella near the Passo Lanciano and
runs straight down to the Adriatic, where its mouth is about halfway between
Pescara and Ortona.
[29] River Fortore - the River Fortore rises from Lago Occhito in the
Monti della Daunia and runs north-eastwards down to the Adriatic; it forms a
natural border between the Italian regions of Campania, Molise and Puglia.
The landscape is extremely varied: cultivated fields, olive groves,
vineyards, orchards, and wooded areas. It has many watercourses and lakes
tucked away among the hills.
[30] Chieti – The Province of Chieti is mostly a hilly and
mountainous area between the Adriatic sea to the east and the Maiella chain
to the north-west. It is extensively cultivated with olive trees and
vineyards, and produces celebrated wines and extra virgin olive oil. The
province of Chieti was called "Citeriore" since it was situated to the right
of the Pescara river - in Latin "citra" (=this side) with reference to
Naples, the capital of the Kingdom. The Pescara River separated it from the
province of Teramo, the Apennine Mountains from the province of L'Aquila,
the right shore of the Sangro and the Valicella of the Varrino from Molise.
The territory includes mountainous features, the group of the Maiella, and
72 km of steep and rocky coast, along the Adriatic sea.
The
town of Chieti lies on a crest along the Pescara river. It has an
unmistakable profile with the high bell tower of San Giustino against the
sky, a few km away from the Adriatic Sea, and with the Majella and
Gran Sasso in the background. It was a Roman town, Teate, and an important
medieval centre.
Chieti
[31] Molise - is a region of south
central Italy, the second smallest of the regions.
[32] Larino – is a town of approximately 7,080 inhabitants in the
Italian Region of Molise, (just south of Abruzzo), province of Campobasso.
It is located at the head of the outlet to the sea of the fertile Biferno
Valley, where it dominates and is central to communications, both the
east-west routes between the sea and the inland region, leading to Campania,
and also the coastal north-south route.
Larino has been continuously inhabited for several millennia. Originally
settled by the Samnite and Frentani tribes of Southern Italy, the city came
under the control of the Oscan civilization. Its early development as a
town, way ahead of other Italic sites, is due to its geographical and
political situation; the town was established in the IVth Century B.C. and
it prospered well into the Vth-VIth Centuries A.D.
In 217 BC the Romans defeated Hannibal here, and it was later incorporated
into the Roman Empire, when it was classified as a municipium, and added to
the Secunda Regio (Apulia). Inscriptions are found in all three ancient
alphabets, Oscan, Greek and Latin.
The modern city was founded in 1300, after the old one, less than 1 mile
away, was destroyed in an earthquake, after repeatedly having been sacked by
the Saraceans. In 1656, a plague nearly wiped out the city; thousands died.
The 373 survivors were prepared to abandon the settlement, but through the
vigorous efforts of then Bishop Giuseppe Catalano, they were convinced to
stay, and the city grew and thrived once again. The old town, seen from the
mountains, is shaped like a bird's wing. The new town, called Piano San
Leonardo, is built on a mountainside.
|
|
Larino Amphitheatre
predates the Colisseum in Rome |
An aerial view of the
Larino - its wing-like shape is obvious. |
[33] Ortona - is a coastal town in the
province of Chieti in Abruzzo, 236 feet above sea-level, with 22,700
inhabitants.
[34] Istonio – Histonium – (Now Vasto) a small coastal town about
halfway between Ortona and Termoli – (an important railhead for allied
supplies in WW2).
[35] Buca – a lost Roman Adriatic coastal city (pre 1st Century BC)
mentioned by ancient geographers, perhaps situated somewhere between Istonio
and Punta Penne)
[36] Punta Penne – a headland just to the north of Brindisi
[37] Termoli - Termoli is a medium-sized town on the Adriatic coast,
in the province of Campobasso, region of Molise. Termoli has a population of
around 30,000 and it is the largest and most important seaside resort in
Molise, well known for its beaches and old fortifications (the Swabian
castle, built in the 12th century by Frederick II once protected Termoli
from marauding Saracens and pirates).. Presently Termoli consists of a newer
part, on the coast and an ancient borough, called "Borgo Vecchio" up on a
rocky promontory.
Archaeological excavations brought to life an italic necropolis in the areas
called Porticone and Difesa Grande, next to the Sinarca river; this showed
that the area had been inhabited since early times, and it seems, from the
studies of Roman historians, that it was the site of a centre called
Interamnia, in Latin meaning between streams, namely the Biferno and the
Sinarca rivers. The name may be derived from "thermae", suggesting there
might have been Roman spas in the area, but none have been found so far.
With the fall of the Roman Empire the population took refuge on the
promontory where today the old Termoli rises; for centuries Termoli came
under attack by Saracen pirates and by the Venetians.
[38] Interamnia - was the site of a Roman encampment, though its
origins stretch back a lot further; 'Interamnia' means between two rivers.
The town that developed there is now called Teramo, it is situated 432 m.
above sea level, near the confluence of the Vezzola torrent with the Tordino
River. Founded by the population of the Prepuzi, it was known in ancient
times as 'Interamnia'. An important Municipium in Roman times, it rapidly
declined after the fall of the Empire and, following Goth and Byzantine
domination, became part of the territories of the Lombard Duchy of Spoleto.
In 1708, it was conquered by the Normans, then it shared the fortunes of the
Kingdom of Naples. Under the Angevin dynasty, it again attained great
importance (14th century) but subsequently declined, due to disputes among
the various local overlords. It was united with Italy in 1860. The province
of Teramo lies between the two coastal towns of Ancona and Pescara and the
imposing mountain slopes of Gran Sasso and Monti della Laga. Teramo (town)
itself is located in the middle of this territory, between the rivers
Tordino and Vezzola as they make their way towards the Adriatic.
[39] Anxanum (Lanciano) – Geographically Anxanum-Lanciano has always
had great importance due to its commanding position, at the centre of the
peninsula, facing the Adriatic and on the North-South route – it had a key
position on the route to Apulia, being situated along the Aracturus Magnus
(the main transhumance route in Abruzzi).
According to legend Anxanum was founded in 1181 BC by Solima, a companion of
Aeneus, after they had fled from the destruction of Troy; he named it
Anxanum or Anxia in honour of his brother, Anxa, who died during their
flight from Troy; Solima also founded Sulmona. Historically, there was
already a settlement in paleolithic times, 7,000 years ago, and Anxanum was
the capital of the Frentani people and their land, Frentania. Later the town
was colonised successively by Greeks, Etruscans, the Gauls, and was
conquered by the Romans in 435 BC. It then became a Municipium. Even in the
times of Livy, Varro and Pliny the Elder, Anxanum was well-known for its
famous annual market fairs, the “nundinae” – which continue today every
April in the guise of the National Agricultural Fair. After the fall of the
Roman Empire, Anxanum was sacked many times and then destroyed by the
barbarians in 571 AD. The Longobards built a fort there which was taken over
by the Byzantines in 610 AD. Gradually its name was changed from Anxanum to
Lanciano. Due to the important North-South road passing through the town,
connecting Puglia to the North of the Country, Lanciano became ever more
important. Under the Franks it became part of the dominion of The Duke of
Spoleto, then of Benevento and under the Normans, part of the powerful
Kingdom of Naples.
Lanciano is supposedly the birthplace of Longinus, the Roman centurion who
thrust his spear into Jesus's side during the Crucifixion. Lanciano is
Italian for "The Spear." The city is also known for the first recorded
ancient Catholic Eucharistic Miracle that has been proven by modern day
science.
[40] Pallanum (Pallano) - a town of the Frentani, on Via Frentana,
Pallano. There are remains of Vth-IVth Century BC Megalithic Walls on Mount
Pallano, which stretched along its ridge in the past. Nowadays the remains
of this once mighty Wall, five metres high, wind up the eastern ridge, from
the North to the South, for only 160 metres. In addition to the Walls, there
is a settlement, probably the ancient city Pallanum, in the neighbourhood of
Fonte Benedetti.
[41] Iuvanum - Dominated by the massif of the Maiella, Iuvanum is
immersed in a beautiful landscape, among valleys and mountains peaks, in the
borough of Montenerodomo not far from Torricella Peligna. Iuvanum is a very
interesting ancient site, with a well preserved theatre and the remains of
two temples on the acropolis, surrounded by megalithic pre Roman walls dated
4th century B.C. The Roman town lies at the foot of the acropolis and a long
path leads to the public area with the Forum, tabernae (shops), Basilica and
domus (private houses).
[42] Naturalis Historia - Pliny the Elder's Natural History is
an encyclopedia written by Pliny the Elder. In its present form the
Natural History consists of thirty-seven
books, the first book including a characteristic preface and tables of
contents, as well as lists of authorities, which were originally prefixed to
each of the books separately. The contents of the remaining books are as
follows:
II, mathematical and physical description of the world;
III - VI, geography and ethnography;
VII, anthropology and human physiology;
VIII - XI, zoology;
XII - XXVII, botany, including agriculture, horticulture and
pharmacology;
XXVIII - XXXII, medical zoology;
XXXIII - XXXVII, mineralogy, especially in its application to life
and art, including chasing in silver, statuary in bronze, painting,
modelling, and sculpture in marble.
He apparently published the first ten books himself in AD 77, and was
engaged in revising and enlarging the rest during the two remaining years of
his life. The work was probably published with little, if any, revision by
the author's nephew, who, when telling the story of a tame dolphin, and
describing the floating islands of the Vadimonian Lake, thirty years later
(viii. 20, ix. 33), has apparently forgotten that both are to be found in
his uncle's work (ii. 209, ix. 26). He describes the Naturalis Historia,
as a Naturae Historia, and characterizes it as a "work that is learned and
full of matter, and as varied as nature herself."
Extract from Book III. XII. 106 – {pertinent because it shows that
Torricella is Frentanian and not Pelignian} -
"There follows the fourth region, which includes the very bravest races of
Italy. On the coast, in the territory of the Frentani, after Tifrenum are
the river Trigno, affording a harbour, and the towns of Histonium, Buca and
Hortona and the river Aternus [now the Pescara]. Inward are the Anxani
surnamed Frentani, the Upper and Lower Caretini and the Lanuenses; and in
the Marrucine territory Chieti; in the Paelignian, the people of Corfinum ,
Subequo and Sulmona; in the Marsian, those of Lanciano, Atina, Fucino, Lucca
and Muria; in the Albensian region the town of Alba on Lake Fucino; in the
Aequiculan, Cliternia and Carsoli; in the Vestinian, Angulani {Sant'
Angelo}, Pinna and Peltuina, adjoining which is Ofena South of the Mountain;
in the region of the Samnites, who once were called Sabelli and by the
Greeks Saunitae, the colony of Old Bojano and the other Bojano that bears
the name of the Eleventh Legion, Alfidena, Isernia, Fagifulani, Ficolea,
Supino and Terevento; in the Sabine, Amiternum, Correse, Market of Decius,
New Market, Fidenae, Ferano, Norcia, La Mentana, Riete, Trebula Mutuesca,
Trebula Suffena, Tivoli, Tarano. In this district, of the tribes of the
Aequicoli the Comini, Tadiates, Caedici and Alfaterni have disappeared. It
is stated by Gellianus that a Marsian town of Archippe, founded by the
Lydian commander Marsyas, has been submerged in Lake Fucino, and also
Valerian says that the town of the Vidicini in Picenum was destroyed by the
Romans. " Translated by H. Rackham, 1942; Cambridge, Mass. Harvard U. Press
(Loeb Classical Library)
[43] Anxani – Pliny says (Naturalis Historia, Book III. XII)
“inland from the coastal strip are the Anxani, surnamed Frentani, amongst
the bravest people of Italy…” These people are probably from Anxanum – see
[39] above.
[44] Carentines – according to Pliny these people were Frentanians.
The wide range of form of the names of this group of Samnite tribes,
Caraceni, Carecini, Caretini, etc., is partly due to the swings and
differences in ancient writings, (Tacitus, Pliny, Tolomeo) and partly due to
later reconstructions and criticisms of these texts. Recently two
inscriptions have enabled a better definition of the precise Latin form of
the ethnic group as Carricini.
Precisazioni Sul Nome "Carricini".
[45] Caracenes - (or Sarentines or Saracines) – probably Saracens,
possibly pirates. The term Saracen comes from Greek sarakenoi. In the early
centuries of the Roman Empire Saracen was used as the name of an Arab tribe
in the Sinai, apparently taken from the Arabic word sharqiyyin
("easterners"). Later the Greek-speaking subjects of the Empire applied it
to all Arabs. After the rise of Islam, and especially at the time of the
Crusades, its usage was extended to all Muslims, particularly those in
Sicily and Southern Italy. In older Western historical literature, the term
"Saracen Empire" was often used to refer to the Arab Caliphate under the
rule of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties.
In Christian polemical writing against Islam, the name was made to mean
"those empty of Sarah" or "not from Sarah," because Arabs are descended from
Hagar.
Saracen has also commonly been applied as a term meaning Mediterranean
pirates.
[46] Balzano –. Vincenzo Balzano ( 1866 - 1951) a great populariser
of Abruzzan art, architecture, archaeology etc, – for many years he
regularly wrote Art Notes (Note D’Arte) in the Abruzzan Journal (Rivista
Abruzzese) and was a distinguished writer, publishing Monographs and
books on both History and Art of Abruzzo. Born in Castel Di Sangro, Vincenzo
Balzano, a magistrate and University Jurist, was extremely knowledgeable in
the local history, art, and archaeology of Abruzzo; he was a founder member
and participated for years in the National Committee compiling Italy’s
History in the "Bullettino della Deputazione abruzzese di storia patria",
li-liii (1961-1963), pp. 5-131 (G. Zarrilli) XXV (1965).
In 2002, it was reported in Abruzzo World, that, as a tribute to the
versatile author Balzano, Walter Capezzali had published an illustrated
collection of all of Balzano’s writings, from 1889 – 1965, including two
previously unpublished works, one a lengthy manuscript about Abruzzan
artists, sculptors, architects, goldsmiths and carvers, the other a short
article about Leonardo da Teramo.
[47] Civitella Alfedena – a high mountain village, lies in the Upper
Sangro Valley at the foot of the Monti della Meta, on a gentle hill
overlooking Lake Barrea, right in the heart of the Abruzzo National Park.
[48] Villa S. Maria - is located at the foot of a vertical rock
called La Penna and extends into the shallow floodplain of the Sangro, a
fast flowing river that empties into the Adriatic, 30 miles away.
|
|
La Penna above Villa S.
Maria |
The Majella |
[49] River Sangro - The Sangro is a
river in eastern central Italy. It rises in the Abruzzo National Park in the
Apennine Mountains, before flowing northeast and into the Lago di Sangro.
From there it flows northeast and joins the Aventino River, and thence into
the Adriatic Sea south of Punta Cavelluccio.In ancient times it was known as
Sagrus.
[50] Majella – The Majella mountain range is connected with the
Morrone mountain. The rounded massif of the Majella is very characteristic.
Similar to a magnificent, elliptical dome, it dominates the Abruzzo
countryside rising up between the sea and the Apennine range.
The western side, being without valleys, is furrowed by wide screes that
push as far as the beech woods that embellish that side, whereas the eastern
side is more rounded.
Apart from the principal peak, Monte Amaro (2,795 metres), there are another
thirty that are above 2,000 metres. These include Monte Acquaviva (2,737
metres), the Cima delle Murelle (2,596 metres) and Monte Focalone (2,676
metres) with almost dolomitic faces. The charm of the Majella is increased
by deep valleys, real and true "canyons" and by vast plateaus above 2,000
metres such as Valle di Femmina Morta. The phenomenon of karsification is
evidenced by the numerous grottoes, one of which is Grotta del Cavallone.
For geologists, it is an Apenninic Anticline, this is to say a pile of rock
that has been folded during the creation of the Apennine Mountain Chain.
These rocks were at sea level 7 million years ago, but nowadays are at
almost 3,000m above sea level, thus indicating the huge forces that lead to
their formation. The mountain is now a National Park where nature lovers can
find an incredible quantity of interests. Numerous species of endemic rare
plants and animals (bears, wolfs, orchids, etc) are present in this area,
and there is spectacular geology to be appreciated all around. Good
observers can even find petroleum in several locations in the park.
[51] Bomba - lies on the slopes of Mount Pallano. Although there was
a pre Roman settlement, the modern town was not founded until around the
1400’s. For centuries it was a feudal town. It was the birth place of two
famous Italian philosopher brothers, Silvio (a patriot) and Bertrando
Spaventa.
[52] Pallano - Mount Pallano, situated on the right bank of River
Sangro, 15 km from the sea, is the lowest defensible position on the course
of its waters. At a height of 1020 m., extending about 7 km from its peak, a
wide landscape spreads out below, embracing nearly 300 km of coast, the
Gargano, Monte Conero, the Tremiti Islands, the last 50 km of the River
Sangro and the massive Majella. The karst nature of the land results in the
presence of many springs, which fulfil the water requirements of the nearby
villages. The strategic position and the wealth of water have facilitated
man’s permanence here over the course of time. Traces of human presence have
been discovered from the paleolithic, neolithic, Hellenistic-Roman periods
and the late Middle Ages, but it has not been possible to date the earliest
occupation nor the reason for it having been abandoned.
Early in history Mount Pallano was settled by a Samnite tribe, of northern
Lucani, whose own ethnic island, wedged between the Pentri, Carricini and
Frentani, suggests they were probably related to more well-known inhabitants
of historical Lucania, now Basilicata.
[53] Pizi (Pizzi) or Piconi Mountains – form a part of The National
Park of the Maiella, which geographically is formed by four big mountain
units: the wide and compact calcareous massif of the Majella in the centre
of the park, the Morrone mountains in the north-west, the Porrara area to
the south, and the Pizzi Mountains in the south-east, together with their
valleys and the karst plains; altogether there are more than 60 mountains,
of which 30 are over 2000 metres in height.
[54] Pizzoferrato - in the province of Chieti, is located on the
eastern slopes of the Maiella at a height of 1,251 metres, near the Sangro
River; population about 1250 inhabitants.
|
|
|
Pizzoferrato |
Palena |
Montenerodomo |
Pizzoferrato is built around a huge
cliff-top, where the oldest section of the village is to be found, with the
remains of two medieval churches. First settled by Benedictine monks from
nearby Quadri, its original name was Pizzosterrato, but it was changed to
Pizzoferrato in 1770, when, as a defence against brigands who infested the
area, the town closed its entrance with a huge iron gate, still to be seen
near the ruins of the church of San Nicola di Bari.
[55] Palena – lies on a gentle hill in the Aventino valley, at the
far end of the Majella, with Mounts Porrara and Coccia in the west, and
artificial lake Sant'Angelo in the east. The very rugged territory overlooks
the upper Aventino valley. Its etymology is uncertain, though it shares the
same origin as the Maiella, mountain, whose ancient name "Palenus" was given
because it was sacred to Jupiter Palenus. On the transhumance route, Palena
was well-known in past times for its fine wool-work.
[56] Montenerodomo - This ancient centre lies on a high rocky ridge,
1,165 metres above sea level, overlooking the Adriatic to the East and the
Majella to the west, between the Aventino and Sangro Rivers. Lying on the
eastern side of the Maiella, it has a beautiful panoramic view from the
Maiella to the Adriatic Sea. The village now has a population of only 1,100
inhabitants, but it was much larger previously.
Inhabited since prehistory, it became an Italic centre of the Italic
Frentani tribe, then with the name of Juvanum was conquered by Rome in the
1st Century BC, when it became a municipium. Not far from the present-day
village are the ruins of Juvanum, with an acropolis, a theatre and a forum.
The philosopher Benedetto Croce's ancestors were born here, but The Second
World War destroyed the ancient Croce Palace and seriously damaged the old
centre.
[***] TORRICELLA (whether Peligna or not) - Altitude: 910 m above sea
level. Distance from Chieti: 54 km. Population: about 1,800 inhabitants.
Situated in a hilly area in the high Aventino valley, between the Sangro and
Aventino Rivers, it has a beautiful panoramic view that extends all the way
from the Maiella to the Adriatic. Not far away are the ruins of Juvanum, a
Roman city originating on a pre-existing italic settlement, from where
Torricella’s inhabitants most probably originated. Sadly the village was
severely damaged by bombing in the Second World War.
Torricella
[57] Nicola Picone –a contemporary Torricellan, author of some
articles in Amici di Torricella.
[58] Samnite Wars – there were three wars between the early Roman
Republic and the tribes of Samnium. They ran from 343 BC to 290 BC, and
ended in the domination of the Samnites by the Romans.
[59] Italic Wars – The Roman Italic War – Social War or Marsic War
[Lat. socii=allies], 91B.C.–88 B.C., was a struggle brought on by the
demands of the Italian allies asking for the privileges of Roman
citizenship. These allies had fought on the side of Rome and had helped to
establish Roman hegemony, but they did not have the same rights as the
Romans. Most Romans were greatly averse to sharing citizenship, but Marcus
Livius Drusus in 91 B.C. proposed laws granting it to the allies. He was
murdered, and a coalition of the allies, chief among them the Marsi, arose
in desperation and waged war against Rome, planning to form an Italian
federation. Led by Quintus Pompaedius Silo and Caius Papius Mutilus, they
gained some success but could not overcome the power of Rome. The revolt
died down only after Lucius Julius Caesar secured passage of a law (90 B.C.)
granting citizenship to allies who had not joined the revolt and also to
those who laid down their arms immediately. The allies were divided, but the
revolt ceased. Citizenship was soon given to all of them.
[60] Silla - Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, (ca. 138 BC – 78 BC) Roman
politician who introduced a number of reforms and reinstated exiled
citizens. He was usually known simply as Sulla. His cognomen (name he was
known by – originally the third name of a Roman) Felix - the fortunate - was
attained later in his life, in 82 BC, due to his legendary luck as a
general. He had many victories in the East but he was cruel and pitiless
when attacking Rome. He took the unprecedented step of marching on Rome with
his legions, to purge the Senate of his political enemies and to ensure the
downfall of a rival general. Once he was completely in charge of Rome, Sulla
proceeded to butcher all political opponents on a scale unmatched even by
the outrages of previous generals. The city was filled with murder. Plutarch
describes the terror and awe in which Sulla was held.
Sulla was the victor in the first full-scale civil war in Roman history
(88–82 BC) and subsequently dictator (82–79), he carried out notable
constitutional reforms in an attempt to strengthen the Roman Republic during
the last century of its existence.
“Sulla had not been outdone by any of his friends in doing good or by any of
his enemies in doing harm.” Plutarch, Life of Sulla, 38.
Sulla's name is also seen as "Silla", presumably due to corruption of
ancient writing "SVILLA" (Suilla), that became both Sulla and Silla. It is
also occasionally seen as "Sylla" (which in Latin would be pronounced "Syoola",
very close to the regular form "Sulla").
[61] Comizio – a public meeting in ancient Rome in which an orator
spoke about programmes and problems relevant to politics, elections,
legislating and the people.
[62] Senate – the supreme collegiate organ of the Government in
ancient Rome for internal and external State politics (at least up until the
end of the Republican age). Initially it was composed of elders,
subsequently of citizens who had been elected to the main jobs as
magistrates.
[63] Duumvirate – each of two magistrates in ancient Rome who were
given certain functions to perform together.
[64] Quattuorvirate – each one of four magistrates who acted together
collegiately in ancient Rome, with powers to judge and to formulate
policies.
[65] Questor (Quaestor) – a minor magistrate in ancient Rome,
appointed by the Senate who would select which function each Questor would
hold – to act as a judge, an administrator or in a financial capacity.
[66] Mommsen - Theodor Mommsen (1817 - 1903) was a German classical
scholar and historian, generally regarded as the greatest classicist of the
19th century. He studied jurisprudence in Kiel from 1838 to 1843, then he
went to France and Italy to study classical history. A professor of law at
the University of Leipzig, he was involved in the 1848 revolution and had to
resign in 1850. In 1858 he was professor of Ancient History at the
University of Berlin, then he was named permanent secretary of the Prussian
Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was later elected a member of the
parliament of Prussia as a National Liberal (later as a Liberal).
Mommsen published hundreds of works - a 1905 bibliography lists over 1,000
items - and effectively gave a new order to the study of Roman history. He
pioneered epigraphy, the study of inscriptions on stone and wood. His main
work was the unfinished History of Rome, but today his most relevant
work is perhaps the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, a collection of
Roman inscriptions to which he contributed for the Berlin Academy. Other
works regarded Roman coinage and Roman constitutional and criminal law. He
edited several volumes of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica.
He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1902 in recognition of his
historical work; one of the very few non-fiction writers to receive the
literature Nobel.
[67] Fallascoso – originally called Falascuso, then Fallascusum, it
lies perched on a cliffside at 923 metres above sea level, 3 km west of
Torricella Peligna. Due to this precarious position it has remained more or
less unchanged since the Middle Ages. Some houses are built from stones
taken from the walls of Iuvanum, which was destroyed by the earthquake of
346 AD. The houses of the outer perimeter are all attached and this
continuous wall is thought to be part of Iuvanum’s fortified walls.
[68] Pennadomo – lies on a hill on the left bank of the River Sangro.
In ancient times it was under the dominion of nearby Iuvanum. It is defended
on the Sangro side by two enormous vertical limestone rock walls.
Pennadomo
[69] Taranta – (Taranta Peligna) arises on the slopes of the Maiella,
in the upper reaches of the valley of the River Aventino, where the
surrounding mountains have many caves, many named after animals. Some
buildings date back to the 12th Century AD. The people were well-off thanks
to the materials they wove from the wool of their sheep – they used a
special method with tarante or Tarantole. A typical cover from Taranta
Peligna doesn’t have a right side and a wrong side – both sides can be used.
[70] Gessopalena - This small town takes its name from the chalk
quarries of the area; it has many medieval monuments. It has been inhabited
since Pre-Roman times. In the early Middle Ages it consisted of a group of
houses clinging to a big rock called "Pietra Lucente" (Shining Stone) on top
of which was an ancient castle. Later the population moved downwards along
the ancient "Via Peligna". At that time Gessopalena was the main commercial
centre in the Aventino valley. The medieval citadel was seriously damaged in
an earthquake in 1933 and destroyed by bombings during World War Two.
[71] Civitella – (Civitella Messer Raimondo) This medieval citadel
rises on a crest with the beautiful Verde river flowing just below it, on
its way to joining the Aventino river. Prehistoric and pre-Roman findings
testify to the antiquity of human presence in its territory, and documents
dating back to the 12th Century AD mention the village’s name.
[72] Catalogue of Barons - (Catalogus Baronum) is an early
12th Century record, a list of all the Barons in the Southern regions of the
Italian Peninsula, (corresponding to the Kingdom of Naples, but not
including Sicily) drawn up in the early 1150’s and revised about 20 years
later by the Norman Kings William I, the Bad (1154-1166) and William II, the
Good (1166-1189); it also covers the Barons’ feudal rights and duties – it
can be regarded as Italy’s Domesday Book.
[73] Campo di Giove – situated at 1,100 metres, at the foot of the
Southern slopes of the Majella, the “holy” mountain of the Abruzzesi, this
village is very beautiful and a popular goal for tourists and skiers.
[74] Pacentro – lies within the National Park of the Majella, on a
hilltop on Monte Morrone, where it dominates the Peligna Valley. It is one
of the best preserved historic villages with buildings dating back to the
8th-9th Century AD. It was built on the site of the ancient Peligni centre
called Pacino. (A modern claim to fame is that the singer Madonna’s roots
are here!)
[75] Lama – (Lama dei Peligni) - Situated on the border with the
Province of L'Aquila, just below Mount Amaro, comprises in its territory the
Oasi Naturale Majella Orientale (Eastern Natural Oasis of the Majella), and
is a starting point for many beautiful trekking excursions, horseback and
biking itineraries.
[76] River Pescara – From its origin, in the high Apennine mountains,
the River Pescara runs as a torrent in a narrow gorge that divides two
mountain chains, thus creating conditions for an unusual vegetation. The
river then flows from the west then along the low pre-Apennine hills until
it reaches the Adriatic shore, where its mouth divides the town of Pescara
into two.
[77] Pelina or Peligna - people who inhabited the Valle Peligna
before the Romans. The Italics were divided up into numerous tribal groups
amongst which there were
the Marsi, the Samnites, the Aequi, the Vestini, and those of the Peligna
valley. It is thought that the Peligni tribes took refuge in the most rugged
places to escape from barbarians who invaded Italy and destroyed Sulmona in
488 A.D. The most important finding of this period that we still have today
is the statue of the Warrior of Capestrano, a funeral stele of the 6th
century B.C. which is preserved in the Archaeological Museum in Chieti, and
represents a warrior with all his offensive and defensive weapons. Other
significant testimonies to the pre-Roman period are visible, in particular,
at the Archaeological Museum in Campli (Te) which has preserved objects
discovered in the Picenian necropolis at Campovalano. The whole region is
rich with ruins and findings belonging to this era. Remains of megalithic
walls and buildings have been recovered at Alfedena (L'Aquila) which were
probably from the ancient Samnite centre of Aufidena, well-known from the
7th to the 2nd century B.C. and destroyed by the Romans in 298 B.C. A huge
Samnite necropolis has also come to light with more than six thousand tombs
datable from the 7th to the 3rd century B.C. At Montenerodomo, outstanding
remains of polygonal walls, attributable to an Italic settlement of
considerable size, have been unearthed, whilst a little way outside
Tornareccio the ruins of the megalithic walls of Pallanum, an ancient
Frentani centre, can be seen. The ruins of an Italic temple, datable as the
3rd to 2nd century B.C. have been discovered at Castiglione Messer Raimondo,
in the Colle San Giorgio area. Its clay decoration, partly reconstructed, is
preserved at the Archaeological Museum in Chieti together with the
decorative parts in brickwork which carne from the two Italic temples in
Schiavi d'Abruzzo, as well as other archaeological findings from all over
the region.
Sketch of the Valle Peligna and its Mountains
[78] Cibele - A goddess of nature and fertility in Asia Minor and
later in Greece, whose worship was marked by ecstatic and frenzied states.
Cybele - in ancient Asian
religion
was the Great Mother Goddess. The chief centres of her early worship were
Phrygia and Lydia. In the 5th Century B.C. her cult was introduced into
Greece, where she was associated with Demeter and Rhea. The spread of her
cult to Rome late in the 3d Century B.C. was marked chiefly by her Palatine
temple. Cybele was primarily a nature goddess, responsible for maintaining
and reproducing the wild things of the earth. As guardian of cities and
nations, however, she was also entrusted with the general welfare of the
people. She was attended by the Corybantes and Dactyls, who honoured her
with wild music and dancing. At her annual spring festival, the death and
resurrection of her beloved Attis were celebrated. She frequented mountains
and woodland areas and was usually represented either riding a chariot drawn
by lions or seated on a throne flanked by two lions. Cybele is frequently
identified with various other mother goddesses.
[79] Vesta - Goddess of the home,
Sister of Jupiter, Greek name Hestia – was the goddess of the hearth, the
centre of the Roman home.
She
was a quiet well-behaved goddess, who didn't join in the arguments and
fights of the other gods.
She was protector of the sacred flame, which was supposed to have been
brought from Troy to Rome by the hero Aeneus. The flame was relit every
March 1st and had to be kept alight all year. If this flame ever went out,
disaster would fall on Rome. The flame was kept alive by the Vestal Virgins.
These priestesses were chosen when they were as young as six years old. They
had to stay as priestesses for thirty years, and were not allowed to marry.
In Roman homes, every day, during a meal, a small cake was thrown on the
fire for Vesta. It was good luck if it burnt with a crackle.
[80] Diana - Goddess of the hunt. In
Roman art Diana usually appears as a huntress with bow and arrow, along with
a hunting dog or a stag. She is also goddess of the
moon,
forests, animals, and women in childbirth. Both a virgin goddess and an
earth goddess, Diana was identified with the Greek Artemis. She is praised
for her strength, athletic grace, beauty and her hunting skills. With two
other deities she made up a trinity: Egeria the water nymph (her servant and
assistant midwife), and Virbius (the woodland god).
[81] Pallade - Pallas - (Greek
mythology) goddess of wisdom and useful arts and prudent warfare; guardian
of Athens; identified with Roman Minerva. Athena was
called
Athena by both Greeks and Romans. She reigned as goddess of wisdom and the
arts, and goddess of war. Daughter of Jupiter (Zeus) and Juno, she sprang
not only fully grown, but fully armed from the head of Zeus, who gave his
precocious daughter - as a sign of special favour - his famous breastplate
adorned with the head of the Gorgon Medusa, as well as his shield and his
thunderbolt. Athena was often sculpted and portrayed in a splendid helmet
and armour, carrying a spear (i.e., thunderbolt).
She was considered to be the virgin goddess of warriors, poetry, medicine,
wisdom and learning, meditation, commerce, crafts, inventiveness,
accomplishments such as the arts, spinning and weaving, and commerce and
also inventor of music. Ovid called her the "goddess of a thousand works."
The Romans celebrated her worship from March 19 to 23 during the Quinquatrus,
for five days at the Spring equinox, the artisans' holiday.
Minerva was identified with Pallas Athene, bestower of victory, when Pompey
the Great built her a temple with the proceeds from his eastern campaigns.
Minerva has many aspects, attributes, names and epithets.
She presided over the useful and ornamental arts, both those of men - such
as agriculture and navigation - and those of women, - spinning, weaving, and
needlework. She was also a warlike divinity; but it was defensive war only
that she patronized, and she had no sympathy with Mars's (Ares) savage love
of violence and bloodshed. Athens was her chosen seat, her own city, awarded
to her as the prize of a contest with Neptune (Posiedon), who also had
aspired to it. The tale ran that in the reign of Cecrops, the first king of
Athens, the two deities contended for the possession of the city. The gods
decreed that it should be awarded to the one who produced the most useful
gift to the mortals. Neptune gave the horse; Minerva produced the olive. The
gods gave judgment that the olive was the more useful of the two, and
awarded the city to the goddess; and it was named after her, Athens, her
name in Greek being Athene.
[82] Priori - presumably an archaeologist (it seems the Social Centre
in Torino di Sangro has been named after him) and he’s published at least
two articles :-
Priori, Badie e Conventi Benedettini D’Abruzzo e Molise,
Carabba, Lanciano 1976, p. 123
Priori, D., Lo stemma e il nome di Torino di Sangro, in
"Rivista Abruzzese", a IX, 1956
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